SYSTEMIC MYCOSES:

Systemic mycoses include a group of fungal infections that affect the internal organs. The fungi have the ability to enter the body through the lungs, gut, paranasal sinuses, or the skin. Most infections tend to originate in the respiratory tract and then spread through the bloodstream to multiple organs including the skin, often causing multiple organs to fail and eventually resulting in the death of the patient.

The following diseases are caused by dimorphic fungi, the organism exist in two form (cold (20°C) = mold; heat (37°C) = yeast), except the coccidioidomycosis, which is a spherule in tissue, not yeast. (Le, Bhushan, & Grimm, 2011). Systemic mycoses can mimic TB (granuloma formation) but unlike TB, have no person to person transmission.

Histoplasmosis: caused by histomaplasma capsulatum, present like pneumonia, it is endemic from Mississippi and Ohio River valleys. Most individuals with histoplasmosis are asymptomatic. Those who develop clinical manifestations are usually immunocompromised or are exposed to a high quantity of inoculum (Fayyaz, 2011). Histoplasma species may remain latent in healed granulomas and recur, resulting in cell-mediated immunity impairment.

Blastomycosis: caused by Blastomyces dermatitidis. Causes inflammatory lung disease and disseminate to skin and bone, form granulomatous nodules. It is endemic from State east of Mississippi and Central America.(Le, 2011).

It is a common infection among dogs in endemic areas. It may serve as an indicator of human disease because of the shared environment. Blastomycosis is reported in other animals, including the horse, cow, cat, bat, and lion. (Varkey, 2011).

 Coccidioidomycosis: caused by Coccidioides immitis, it is a soil fungus endemic from Southwestern United State, California, and by Coccidioides pasadasii, which is endemic from certain arid to semiarid areas of the Southwestern United States (Hospenthal, 2011), produce pneumonia and meningitis, also it can disseminate to bone and skin. According to Le, Bhushan and Grimm (2011) the number of case increase after the earthquakes.

Paracoccidioidomycosis: caused by Paracoccidioides brasiliensis, it is endemic from South and Central America; formerly know as South American Blastomycosis and Lutz-Splendore-Almeida disease, most commonly manifests as a chronic progressive systemic mycosis in men. Pneumonia following dissemination is the most common presentation, also involves the mucous membranes, skin, and lymph nodes (Brazao-Silva, et al., 2011), the disease usually progresses to fatality unless effectively treated.

TREATMENT: The goals of pharmacotherapy are to reduce morbidity and to prevent complications.

Local infection = fluconazole (diflucan) or ketoconazole.

 Systemic infection = amphotericin B.

Other options:

            Itraconazole is the drug of choice in mild-to-moderate pulmonary blastomycosis (Varkey, 2011). The appropriate dose is 200 mg/d for 6 months. The value of a higher dose is uncertain. Gastric acidity is required for absorption of itraconazole. Itraconazole provides the ease of oral administration, low toxicity, and high efficacy. Can be used as substitute for ketoconazole (Fayyaz, 2011) , also can be used for mildly symptomatic or prolonged acute pulmonary histoplasmosis.

Bibliography

Brazao-Silva, M., Andrade, M., Franco, T., Ribeiro, R., Silva Wdos, S., & Faria, G. (2011, Jul; 54 (4): e189-95). medscape.com. Retrieved from Paracoccidioidomycosis: a series of 66 patients with oral lesions from an endemic area. Mycoses: http://reference.medscape.com/medline/abstract/20406390

Fayyaz, J. (2011, Aug 26). medscape. Retrieved from Histoplasmosis: http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/299054-overview

Hospenthal, D. R. (2011, Dec 8). medscape.com. Retrieved from Coccidioidomycosis: http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/215978-overview

Le, T., Bhushan, V., & Grimm, L. (2011). Fisrt AID for the USMLE step 1. usa: McGraw Hill.

Varkey, B. (2011, Feb 8). medscape. Retrieved from Blastomycosis: http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/296870-overview

 

SPIROCHETES INFECTIONS: LYME DISEASE.

            

The spirochetes are spiral-shaped bacteria with axial filaments, and include Borrelia, Leptospira, and Treponema.

Lyme disease is caused by a spirochete, Borrelia Burgdorferi, which is transmitted by the tick bite, from ticks of the genus Ixodes; it is due to systemic infection with B. burgdorferi and the body’s immune response to the infection (Feder, 2008).

Mice are important reservoirs, and the deer required for tick life cycle. (Le, Bhushan, & Grimm, 2011). The patients are generally unaware from the tick bite, because the ticks are tiny and their bites are painless.

The reviewed literature (Meyerhoff, 2011) (Le, 2011) agrees that the manifestations of Lyme disease are divided into 3 stages:

Stage 1: Early localized infection, 1 to 30 day after the tick bite, isolated erythema migrans, patients with an undifferentiated febrile illness, flulike symptoms. Presents with erythema chronicum migrans, an expanding “bull eye” red rash with central clearing, also affected joints, CNS, and heart.

Stage 2: Early disseminated Lyme disease, between weeks to months after the tick bite, it is the secondary, usually hematogenously spread, skin lesion to extracutaneous manifestations. Present neurologic (Bell’s palsy) and cardiac (AV nodal block) manifestations.

Stage 3: Chronic Lyme disease, months to years after infection and may occur after a period of latency, rheumatologic and neurologic manifestation that include subacute encephalopathy, chronic progressive encephalomyelitis, and late axonal neuropathies, as well as symptoms consistent with fibromyalgia; chronic monoarthritis and migratory polyarthritis.

Treatment: The goals of treatment are to cure B burgdorferi infection, to speed the resolution of the clinical manifestations, and to prevent complications.

Lyme disease can be treated with 10 days of Doxycycline (Wormser, et al., 2003), Doxycycline, amoxicillin, or cefuroxime axetil for 10-14 days is indicated for early localized or early disseminated disease associated with erythema migrans in the absence of neurologic involvement or third-degree heart block. (Meyerhoff, 2011).

Bibliography

Feder, H. (2008) ;22(2):315-26,vii). medscape.com. Retrieved from Infect Dis Clin North Am: http://reference.medscape.com/medline/abstract/18452804

Le, T., Bhushan, V., & Grimm, L. (2011). First AID for yhe USMLE step 1. usa: McGraw Hill.

Meyerhoff, J. O. (2011, Sep 27). medscape.com. Retrieved from Lyme Disease Clinical Presentation: http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/330178-clinical

Wormser, G., Ramanathan, R., Nowakowski, J., McKenna, D., Holmgren, D., & Visintainer , P. (2003) ;138(9):697-704). medscape.com. Retrieved from Duration of antibiotic therapy for early Lyme disease. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Ann Intem Med. May 6: http://reference.medscape.com/medline/abstract/12729423

 

GRAM (-) LAB ALGORITM

LEPROSY - HANSEN’S DISEASE

Leprosy according to Lewis (2011) is a chronic granulomatous disease principally affecting the skin and peripheral nervous system, caused by infection with Mycobacterium leprae, an acid-fast bacillus that like cool temperature (infects skin and superficial nerves) and can not be grown in vitrus (Le, Bhushan, & Grimm, 2011); and a newly discovered leprosy-causing organism, Mycobacterium lepromatosis which the preliminary analysis of its 16S rRNA gene and a few other gene segments revealed significant divergence from M. leprae. (Han, et al., 2009).

As mentioned above, leprosy affects the skin, peripheral nerves and eyes, often accompanied by systemic symptoms, which depend on the time of evolution and severity of the disease.

Essential for diagnosis:

.Pale, anesthetic macular (or nodular and erythematous) skin lesion.

.Superficial nerve thickening with associated anesthesia

.Acid-fast bacilli in skin lesions or nasal scraping; or characteristic histologic nerve changes.

Remember: history of residence in endemic area in childhood.

A general classification of disease is based on the number of skin lesions present and the number of bacilli found on tissue smears. Paucibacillary disease (indeterminate leprosy and tuberculoid leprosy) has fewer than 5 lesions and no bacilli on smear testing. Five or more lesions with or without bacilli (borderline leprosies and lepromatous leprosy) is considered multibacillary disease. (Lewis, 2011).

Classification:

·        Lepromatous Leprosy (presents diffusely over skin and is communicable, can be lethal, seen in patients with weak T-cell mediated immunity) (Le, T. 2011).

·        Tuberculoid Leprosy (limited to a few hypoesthetic skin nodules, seen in patients with intact T-cell response) (Le, T. 2011).

·        Borderline Tuberculoid Leprosy

·        Borderline Borderline Leprosy

·        Borderline Lepromatous Leprosy

·        Indeterminate Leprosy

·        Histoid Leprosy

·        Other

The management of leprosy includes early pharmacotherapy and physical, social, and psychological rehabilitation. The goals of pharmacotherapy are to stop the infection, reduce morbidity, prevent complications, and eradicate the disease.

Long-term oral dapsone (toxicity=hemolysis and methemoglobinemia), alternate treatment include rifampin, and combination of clofazimine and dapsone, according the recommendation of World Health Organization.

Treatment of leprosy with only one antileprosy drug will always result in development of drug resistance to that drug. Treatment with dapsone or any other antileprosy drug used as monotherapy should be considered as unethical practice. (WHO, 2011).

Bibliography

Han, X., Sizer, K., Thompson, E., Kabanja, J., Li, J., Hu, P., . . . Silva FJ. (2009, J bacteriol. 2009; 191 (19):6067-74 (ISSN:1098-5330)). Medscape reference. Retrieved from Comparative sequence analysis of Mycobaterium leprae and the new leprosy causing M. lepromatosis: http://reference.medscape.com/medline/abstract/19633074

Le, T., Bhushan, V., & Grimm, L. (2011). First AID for the USMLE step 1. usa: McGraw Hill.

Lewis, F. S. (2011, Aug 5). Medscape.com reference. Retrieved from Dermatologic Manifestation of Leprosy Clinical Presentation: http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1104977-clinical#a0217

WHO. (2011, 12 19). World Health Organization. Retrieved from WHO Multidrug therapy: http://www.who.int/lep/en/

LYSOSOMAL STORAGE DISEASES

Diseases	Deficient Enzyme/ Accumulated substrate	Finding
SPHINGOLIPIDOSES
Fabry’s diseases (XR)	α-galactosidase A Ceramide trihexoside	Peripheral neuropathy of hand/feet, angiokeratomas, cardiovascular/renal diseases
Gaucher’s disease (AR)	β-glucocerebrosidase Glucocerebroside	More common and  benign. Hepatosplenomegaly, aseptic necrosis of femur, bone crises, (crumpled tissue paper)
Niemann Pick disease (AR)	Sphingomyelinase Sphingomyelin	Progressive neurodegeneration, hepatosplenomegaly, cherry red spot on macula, foam cells
Tay-Sachs disease (AR)	Hexosaminidase A GM2 (ganglioside)	Progressive neurodegeneration, developmental delay, cherry red spot on macula, lysosome with onion skin
Krabbe’s disease (AR)	Galactocerebrosidase Galactocerebroside	Peripheral neuropathy, developmental delay, optic atrophy, globoid cells
Metachromatic  leukodystrophy (AR)	Arylsulfatase A Cerebroside sulfate	Central and peripheral demyelination with ataxia, dementia
MUCOPOLYSACCHARIDOSES
Hurler’s diseases (AR)	α-L-idorunidase/ Heparan sulfate Dermatan sulfate	Developmental delay, gargoylism, airway obstruction, corneal clouding, hepatosplenomegaly
Hunter’s diseases (XR)	Iduronate sulfatase/ Heparan sulfate Dermatan sulfate	Mild Hurler + aggressive behavior, no corneal clouding

[1]

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[1]  (Le, Bhushan, & Grimm, 2011)

Le, T., Bhushan, V., & Grimm, L. (2011). Fisrt AID for the USMLE step 1. usa: McGraw Hill.

ALBINISMO: CONSIDERACIONES ETIOLOGICAS

El Albinismo es considerado como un grupo de anormalidades hereditarias relacionada con la síntesis de la melanina, caracterizado por la ausencia o reducción congénita del pigmento melanina. El albinismo es el resultado de un defecto en la producción de la melanina a partir de una compleja via metabólica relacionada con la tirosina.

La heterogeneidad fonotípica del albinismo es debido a diferentes mutaciones del gene, afectando varios puntos en la via metabólica de la melanina, dando como resultado varios grados de reducción de la producción de la melanina. (Bashour, 2010).

La deficiencia congénita esta relacionada directamente con una deficiencia de tirosinasa, de carácter autosómico recesivo, produciéndose una inhabilidad para producir melanina a partir de la tirosina, por otro lado el defecto puede estar relacionado con el transporte de la tirosina, lo cual traerá una disminución en la concentración de tirosina y por tanto una disminución en la melanina. Se consideran otras variantes hereditarias como el albinismo ocular relacionado con la herencia ligada al cromosoma X de carácter recesivo. Aunque también  pudiera ser el resultado de una alteración en la migración de las celulas de la cresta neural, en el desarrollo embriológico. (Le, Bhushan, & Grimm, 2011).

 

Bibliography

Bashour, M. (2010, feb 11). Medscape.com. Retrieved from Albinism: http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1200472-overview

Le, T., Bhushan, V., & Grimm, L. (2011). First AID for the USMLE step 1. usa: McGraw Hill.

MANEJO DEL PACIENTE CON ACCIDENTE CEREBROVASCULAR AGUDO. (PRIMERA PARTE)

El objetivo en el tratamiento agudo del ACV, en primer lugar es la estabilización del paciente para completar su evaluación inicial, la que incluye las imágenes y estudios de laboratorio, en los primeros 60 minutos a su llegada al centro. (Adams, del Zoppo, Alberts, Bhatt, & Brass, 2007). Un estudio Finlandés demostró que el tiempo para el tratamiento con trombolíticos puede ser disminuido con cambios en la coordinación entre el servicio de emergencia médica y los departamentos de emergencias, así como en los procederes, en el departamento de emergencia, para el tratamiento de los pacientes con ictus agudos. (Puolakka, et al., 2010). Las decisiones críticas estarán enfocadas en el control de la presión arterial, la necesidad de intubación, y la determinación del perfil de riesgo-beneficio para la intervención trombolítica. Referir el paciente a un medico especializado en cuidados cerebrovasculares seria lo ideal.

Mantener la estabilidad hemodinámica y el control de la tensión arterial según recomienda Palma López, L; et al (2007) reduciendo sus valores lentamente y solo cuando estos sean superiores a los 220/120 en los ACV isquémicos, y de 190/120 en los hemorrágicos; se usaran los IECA de manera gradual, el Captopril 25-50 mg VO o SL, el Enalapril IV administrando de ½ a 1 amp c/6hr según las cifras de TA. (Palma Lopez, Vasquez Lima, Perez Ruiz, & Isern Longares, 2010). Manejos similares son expuestos por Oscar Ayo y Carlos Escamilla (2007), los cuales recomiendan el uso de Labetalol 10-20 mg IV en un minuto repetido a los 10 minutos, administrando 100 mg en 100 ml de SSF a pasar en 30 minutos, si después del tercer bolo no se ha obtenido la respuesta esperada. Dejando como opción el Urapidilo (20 mg en bolo IV en 20 seg) en caso de contraindicación de los betabloqueadores. Conserva la recomendación de Captopril pero sugiere no usar por la via SL, en caso de HTA diastólica utilizar los parches transdérmicos de Nitroglicerina 5 mg. (Ayo & Escamilla, 2007).

Los problemas de comorbilidad medico deben ser abordados. La hipoglicemia y la hiperglicemia deben ser identificadas y tratadas a tiempo en la evaluación. De acuerdo a los resultados encontrados por el estudio Cochrane, el uso de la insulina intravenosa, en las primeras horas para el mantenimiento de la glucemia, no mejoro los resultados funcionales, la muerte o el déficit neurológico, por el contrario aumento significativamente el riesgo de hipoglucemias. (Bellolio, Gilmore, & Stead, 2011).

 La hipertermia se asocia infrecuentemente con la apoplejía, pero pudiera aumentar la morbilidad, su tratamiento con paracetamol vía oral o rectal esta indicado. La administración de oxigeno suplementario esta recomendada en pacientes con requerimientos de oxigeno documentados. En el pequeño grupo de pacientes con ictus e hipotensión, elevar la tensión arterial farmacológicamente pudiera mejorar el flujo sanguíneo en las regiones críticas estenosadas. (Cruz-Flores, 2011).

Los lineamientos de las AHA/ASA del 2011, para el manejo de los ACV recomiendan centrarse en la prevención de las complicaciones, y la terapia de anticoagulación. Las pruebas recomendadas son el MRI y la venografía bajo resonancia magnética (MRV), las cuales son las más sensibles. Los exámenes sanguíneos deben realizarse mas tarde para establecer diagnósticos diferenciales. (Saposnik G, 2011).

El objetivo del tratamiento fibrinolítico en los ictus isquémicos esta dirigido a recanalizar el vaso antes de que la isquemia ocasione necrosis en el territorio afectado. Los criterios de selección para proceder incluiría a los pacientes con ictus isquémicos durante las 3 primeras horas de comenzado el cuadro, excluyéndose los casos con evidencia hemorrágicas en la TC, aquellos con síntomas leves o señales de mejoría, convulsiones al inicio del episodio, antecedentes de riesgos hemorrágicos, sospecha clínica de hemorragia subaracnoidea o endocarditis bacteriana. (Ayo & Escamilla, 2007).

Bibliography

Adams, H., del Zoppo, G., Alberts, M., Bhatt, D., & Brass, L. (2007). Guigelines for the early management of adults with ischemic stroke: a guideline from tha AHA/ASA Stroke Council, Clinical Cardiology Council, Cardiovascular Radiology and Intervention Council, and the APVDQCORIWG. In STROKE (pp. ;38(5):1655-711). http://reference.medscape.com/medline/abstract/17431204.

Ayo, O., & Escamilla, C. (2007). Enfermedades Cerebrovasculares. In Cliniguia actualizacion de diagnostico y tratamiento (pp. 712-21). Madrid: EviScience.

Bellolio, M., Gilmore, R., & Stead, L. (2011). Insulin for glycemic control in acute ischemic stroke. In Cochrane Database Syst Rev (p. ;9). http://reference.medscape.com/medline/abstract/21901697.

Cruz-Flores, S. (2011, oct 19). MedScape.com. Retrieved from Ischemic stroke in emergency medicine: http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1916852-treatment#aw2aab6b6b3

Palma Lopez, L., Vasquez Lima, M., Perez Ruiz, D., & Isern Longares, J. (2010). Accidentes Cerebrovasculares. In M. Vasquez Lima, & J. Casal Codesido, Guia de actuacion en urgencias (pp. 154-57). Spain: Ofelmaga,s.l.

Puolakka, T., Vayrynen, T., Happola, O., Soinne, L., Kuisma, M., & Lindsberg, P. (2010). Sequential analysis of pretreatment delays in stroke thrombolysis. In Acad Emerg Med (pp. ;17(9):965-9). http://reference.medscape.com/medline/abstract/20836777.

Saposnik G, B. F. (2011, ;42(4):1158-92). Diagnosis and management of cerebral venous thrombosis: a statement for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association. Retrieved from medline: http://reference.medscape.com/medline/abstract/21293023



PRADER-WILLI / ANGELMAN’S SYNDROME: IMPRINTING / GENETIC

Imprinted genes are genes whose expression is determined by the parent (Imprinted Genes, 2011), according of biology dictionary is a phenomenon in which the phenotype of the offspring depends on the source of the chromosome containing the imprinted gene ( Biology-Online.org., 2010).

At a simple locus, only one allele is activate, deletion (imprinted/ inactivation by methylation) of this allele produce diseases (Le, Bhushan, & Grimm, 2011): Prader-Willi and Angelman’s syndrome, in both case the affected genes is in chromosome 15, also those syndromes can be occurs as a result of uniparental disomy (both chromosomes in a pair are inherited from the same parent).

Prader-Willi syndrome: deletion of normally active paternal allele. Le (2011).

Disorder caused by a deletion or disruption of genes in the proximal arm of chromosome 15. Present with diminished fetal activity, obesity, hypotonia, mental retardation, short stature, hypogonadotropic hypogonadism, strabismus, and small hands and feet. (Scheimann, 2011).

Angelman’s syndrome: deletion of normally active maternal allele. Le (2011).

Is a genetic disorder with characteristic features that include severe speech impairment, developmental delay, intellectual disability, and ataxia (Conrad Stoppler, 2011); also present seizures and inappropriate laughter( what is know as “happy puppet” ) Le (2011).

There is no specific therapy for Angelman’s syndrome as regards Conrad Stoppler (2011) , she refers that  a medical therapy for seizures is usually necessary. Physical and occupational therapies, communication therapy, and behavioral therapies are important in allowing individuals with Angelman’s syndrome to reach their maximum developmental potential.

Patients with Prader-Willi syndrome frequently require medical care for hypotonia or poor feeding, evaluation for hypogonadism or hypopituitarism, management of obesity, monitoring for scoliosis, and therapy for behavioral issues (Schluter, Buschatz, & Trowistzsch, 1997).

Bibliography

Biology-Online.org. (2010, august 20). biology online. Retrieved from http://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Genomic_imprinting

Imprinted Genes. (2011, february 14). Retrieved from http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/I/Imprinting.html

Conrad Stoppler, M. (2011, december 8). MedicineNet.com. Retrieved from http://www.medicinenet.com/angelman_syndrome/article.htm

Le, T., Bhushan, V., & Grimm, L. (2011). First AID for USMLE step 1. usa: McGraw Hill.

Scheimann, A. (2011, june 8). Medscape.com. Retrieved from http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/947954-overview

Schluter, B., Buschatz, D., & Trowistzsch, E. (1997). Retrieved from respiratory control in children with Prader-Willi syndrome. Eur J Pediatr. Jan 1997; 156 (1):65-8: http://www.medscape.com/medline/abstract/9007495

 

COMMUNICATION AND LEADERSHIP: THE EFFECTIVENESS OF AN ORGANIZATION

Communication and Leadership: The effectiveness of an organization.

      Communication is defined as a two-way process of reaching mutual understanding, in which participants no only exchange information but also create and share meaning. (Webfinance, Inc., 2011).

      In business the communication is one of the most important topics of organization behavior, Narayana Rao point that the effective communication is a prerequisite for implementing organizational strategies as well as for managing day to day activities through the people. (Rao, 2011).

      Managing expectations is a key driver for effective project communications, according Michael Campbell, which emphasizes on the importance of communication in the business work, based on a study in his own company, which reflected the number one success factor identified by this study was communications, he expresed that they learned that when the communication were strong among the project team member and between the project team and the customers within the company, the projects were nearly always successful, in the other hand, if the projects faild, poor communications was always identified as a critical factor in pinpointing what went wrong. (Campbell, 2009).

      Leader and employees need to be in synch throughout tha decition making and implamentation process, understand one another, be able to exchange ideas in an open and honest way, these things can occur only through communication like John Baldoni (2003) explained us.

      A leader is interpreted as someone who sets direction in an effort and influences people to follow that direction  (McNamara, 2011), the people can be oneself, another individual, a group, and organitacion or a community.

       All leader, must be able to describe where they are going, persuade people to come along with them, connect on a personal level, and demostratte credibility; they need to disclose the option facing an organization and make tough decisions about those options;  hence the high degree in communication skill is one of the best key for leadership effectiveness. (Baldoni, 2003). View Leadership as a process, places emphasis on social interaction and relationship as Wolisnki (2010) state, who express that this is the idea that leadership is a type of relationship, which includes influence others in a certain direction. (Wolinski, 2010)     

      The communication in organizations is definitely very important at all levels of operation, it becomes a strategic tool to be fairly indirect responsibility on messages and media used by company executives to express decisions, give directions, among others. The primary purpose of communication is to inform, that is, spread the word, entertain or motivate action. Whatever its purpose, attitude, clarity and accuracy with which the leader convey the message will affect the action of the listener, whatever the channel used for this purpose.

      As Baldoni (2003) emphasizes “Communication is the glue that holds organizations together” and “the effective leadership, both persnal and corporate, is effective communications”.

References:

Baldoni, J. (2003). Great communication secrets of great leaders. USA: McGraw Hill.

Campbell, M. (2009). Communication Skill for project managers. New York: AMACOM.

McNamara, C. (2011, November 26). managementhelp.org. Retrieved from All about leadership: http://managementhelp.org/leadership/index.htm#anchor293932

Rao, N. (2011). Knol.googel.com. Retrieved from Organizational Behavior Revision Article series: http://www.knol.google.com/k/communication-importance-and-definition

Webfinance, Inc. (2011, november 26). businessdictionary.com. Retrieved from http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/communication.html

Wolinski, S. (2010, April 6). managementhelp.org. Retrieved from Leadership defined: http://managementhelp.org/blogs/leadership/2010/04/06/leadership-defined/

 

EQUIPO & GRUPO DE TRABAJO

      Grupo de trabajo: conjunto de personas que realizan, dentro de una organización, una labor similar.

      Equipo de trabajo: conjunto de personas trabajando de forma coordinada en la ejecución de un proyecto, cada uno esta especializado en una parte del proyecto, por lo que cada uno es responsable de un cometido y solo si todos ellos cumplen su función será posible sacar el proyecto adelante.

	Equipo de trabajo	Grupo de trabajo
Diferencias	.Responde en su conjunto al trabajo realizado. El producto del trabajo es grupal. .Sus miembros son complementarios: cada uno domina una faceta determinada y realiza una parte concreta del proyecto. .Exige estándares comunes de actuación (rapidez de respuesta, eficacia, precisión, dedicación). .Es fundamental la cohesión, la estrecha colaboración entre sus miembros. .Las jerarquías se diluyen. Liderazgo compartido. .La efectividad se mide directamente por la evaluación del producto del trabajo.	.Cada persona responde individualmente al trabajo realizado. El producto del trabajo es individual .Sus miembros no son complementarios: tienen formación similar y realizan el mismo tipo de trabajo .Sus miembros pueden tener una manera particular de funcionar. .No tiene por que haber cohesión o colaboración entre sus miembros. .Es estructurado por niveles jerárquicos. Hay un solo líder que decide, discute y delega. .La efectividad se mide indirectamente.
Similitudes	1.- tienen un objetivo 2.- tienen un líder 3.- tiene una estructura o proceso

[1],[2]

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[1]  (AulaFacil S.L., 2011)

[2]  (Losrecursoshumanos.com, 2011)